Developed in Rome Essay Example for Free

Developed in Rome Essay In the time of the Renaissance, the arts became the primary preoccupation of the people. This is because of the pervading atmosphere of humanism, which promotes the accomplishments of the individual in a gamut of areas. The Renaissance as an era is divided into two parts: the early Renaissance which occurred in Florence and the high Renaissance that developed in Rome. How are these two phases different in terms of artistic styles? How are they alike? In the spirit of humanism that it advances, the art pieces reminiscent of the early Renaissance tried to put into canvass a very realistic depiction of the human form. Everything from proportion to color was considered to achieve the desired effect of realism. According to Noble, â€Å"artists developed new techniques to give paintings a more three-dimensional, life-like quality, and commonly studied human and animal anatomy in efforts to better understand their subjects (6). † These artists enjoyed the patronage of the wealthy, but they were not granted complete artistic freedom. Even though humanism was at its peak, the theme of the arts still leaned towards religion (Noble 6). The artists could only manifest freedom in terms of style and technique. The artistic pioneers of that time included Giotto di Bondone, Massacio, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Donatello. Giotto was the first important artist; it was his study of nature that rendered realistic facial expressions in his paintings (Noble 6), which served as the benchmark for the periods realistic techniques. Massacio is known for his Bible-inspired work, The Tribute Money. Ghiberti was the leading name in architecture; he designed and sculpted bronze doors, which was embellished with scenes from the Bible, for the Baptistry (Noble 6). In terms of sculpture, Donatello was the most important artist. He was responsible for David, â€Å"the first freestanding nude figure sculpted since the Roman era (Noble 6). † â€Å"If the early Renaissance artists paved the way for new techniques and styles in creating arts, it was the High Renaissance artists who mastered these said techniques (Noble 7),† bringing the creation of art to new heights. There might have been an improvement in method, but the subject matter remains the same. The arts of the High Renaissance was still controlled by the Church. However, the works of Leonardo began to manifest a strong leaning toward extreme humanism, which marked the beginning of change (Noble 7). In the High Renaissance, there were three dominant artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Michaelangelo Buonarroti and Raphael. Da Vincis works include the Mona Lisa, The Last Supper and Lady with an Ermine (â€Å"Artcyclopedia† 1). Michaelangelo, on the other hand, is famous for the artwork in the Sistine Chapel (â€Å"Artcyclopedia† 2). Raphael were responsible for such paintings as Saint George and the Dragon, and The Small Cowper Madonna (â€Å"Artcyclopedia† 3). In conclusion, the early Renaissance and High Renaissance only differed in two points: first, they occurred in different locations; second, while the early Renaissance artists created the techniques, the High Renaissance artists perfected them. Moreover, the two phases shared a similarity: the theme of religion despite the humanistic atmosphere. Works Cited Artcyclopedia. 2007. 17 Dec. 2007 http://www. artcyclopedia. com/history/high-renaissance. html. Noble, Matt. Sparknote on Italian Renaissance (1330-1550). 2006. SparkNotes LLC. 17 Dec. 2007 http://www. sparknotes. com/history/european/renaissance1/.

Examining The Major Functions Of Online Banking Information Technology Essay

Examining The Major Functions Of Online Banking Information Technology Essay Online banking is the practice of making bank dealings via the Internet. It will give you an outstanding chance to bypass the time-consuming, paper-based aspects of usual banking in order to manage your finances more competently.   By switching to electronic bills, statements, and payments, the average American family can save 6.6 pounds of paper in one year! And you can grab any fake (scam) transactions faster than if you received a statement by snail post. Thanks to pioneering technology and the Internet in particular, we no longer have to leave the house to make payments. Online banking is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, so you can do it anytime, anywhere.   Online banking allows us to do various services with the click of a mouse. You can: 1.      Pay a bill. Electronic bill payment service allows a depositor to transfer money from his or her online account  to a creditor or merchant, for example to a public utility or a outlet. There is no need to stand in a long queue on a weekend morning to handle your transactions! The payment  is practically instant, though some financial institutions can wait until the next business day to send out the payment. If it is necessary, the bank can publish and mail a paper cheque or bankers draft to a creditor who is not set up to receive electronic payments.    2.      Schedule payments in advance. Most banks recommend clients the ability to schedule a payment on a particular date. Once the amount is entered and the payee is checked off, the funds are automatically deducted from your online bank account.   It is mainly useful if you constantly forget due dates. For example, you can schedule credit card or mortgage payments to make sure that you will not incur late fees and damage your FICO score. 3.      Transfer funds. Do you want to transfer money rapidly and securely? With online banking, you can  make money  transfers between your own  accounts, or send money to a third party account as well. All you need is recipient/payee information and enough funds in your account. Quite often, the operations are performed in real time. 4.      Manage all your accounts in one place. Online banking is an enormous time saver because it provides a chance to handle a number of bank accounts (checking, savings, CDs, IRAs, etc.) from a single site. Most new accounts you open will be automatically added to OB (Online Banking). 5.      View images of your checks online. Do you need a copy of a paid check? With online banking, you can see and print scanned images of the front and back of all checks you have written. It is easy and convenient. 6.      Apply for a loan or credit card.   By using an account online, you can apply for a credit card or a loan (a car loan, a student loan, a mortgage, a home equity loan, etc.) from the same bank. If you have a good credit score and long relationship history with your bank, your application is likely to be accepted.    7.      Purchase and manage CD accounts. You can purchase a certificate of  deposit from your bank If you have money you want to invest,. Online banking lets you compare all available offers as well as the terms, for example APY or maturity periods. When you confirm the purchase, the funds will be automatically deducted from your account.   8.      Order travelers checks. You can order American Express Travelers Cheques online. The bank will typically charge your online account for the sum of the cheques you bought and an express delivery cost.   9.      Increase your overdraft. Log in to online banking and click on Overdraft in the menu You can increase your overdraft online. 10.      Order a cheque book. Save your time by ordering cheque book online. You will need to visit your bank once when you get a confirmation letter that your cheque book is ready for collection.   11.      View up-to-the-minute account statements and balance. There is no need to wait for the bank statement to get to your P.O.Box to check account balances. You can view all transactions and withdrawals every day just by logging in to your online account. Additionally, you can immediately report errors or unauthorized transactions in your statement.   12.      View automatically updated spending report. All of your purchases are sorted into common categories automatically no receipts to keep, no expenses to enter. It is straightforward to see where your money goes! 13.      Track your payment history. Online banking provides an opportunity to look for your payments by transaction type, date, description or amount. When did you last pay Company X? When did you buy your computer? To whom did you make your most recent payment? Your bank knows the answers.   14.      Integrate the data with personal  finance  programs. Online banking lets you bring in electronic payment data in personal finance software such as Quicken or Microsoft Money. You will be able to enter into your online accounts directly from your personal finance program. An Internet connection and online account log in information is all that needed. 15.      Change contact details.   Have you moved to a new house? Changed your telephone number? You can log in to your online account and change contact information (e-mail address, telephone number, password, etc.). It is more secure than to send this information by e-mail.   16.      Utilize investment research.   You can receive real-time quotes, analytics, news and stock market information to make a more relevant and profitable decision. 17.      Take advantage of online brokerage. Internet banking lets you invest online. You can place and confirm  trades 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Most banks offer a wide range of money market instruments from various issuers. 18.      Get alerts. This service lets you to get timely e-mail messages from your bank about any critical changes related to your Internet accounts. For instance, you can get alerts when you make a withdrawal or change your contact information.   19.      Verify terms and conditions. You can verify all information about your account online whenever you forget your interest rates or payment due date. 20.      Chat with your customer assistant department. If you need help, you can send message to your banks customer assistant department. They will be in touch with you and try their best to help you solve your problem.   Now that I described various functions of Online banking it is the time to discuss Citibank functions and how they do them and what is the purpose of doing such functions. Here is the Citigroup Mission Statement: Citigroup Inc. (Citi) recognizes that foreclosures affect the individual, the family and the community. We also understand that early intervention and a full understanding of the available options are important for mitigating or minimizing the impact of foreclosures. Citis Office of Homeownership Preservation (OHP) is dedicated to finding solutions that preserve homeownership and help mitigate the challenges faced by borrowers. We work directly with borrowers at risk of losing their homes. We also work with any and all stakeholders who advocate on behalf of borrowers, including non-profit organizations, elected officials, government agencies, regulators and others. Our strong partnerships with these stakeholders help us to develop and implement homeownership preservation solutions and enable us to magnify our outreach and assistance to borrowers. For example, OHPs hotline for housing counselors greatly enhances their ability to work with us on behalf of our borrowers. And our borrower and counselor outreach programs, which we conduct in collaboration with partners in numerous locations around the U.S., bring help directly to at-risk communities. First I will explain the definition of e-banking. e-banking is defined as the automated delivery of new and traditional banking products and services directly to customers through electronic, interactive communication channels. E-banking includes the systems that enable  financial institution  customers, individuals or businesses, to access accounts, transact business, or obtain information on financial products and services through a public or private network, including the Internet. Customers access e-banking services using an intelligent electronic device, such as a personal computer (PC), personal digital assistant (PDA), automated teller machine (ATM), kiosk, or Touch Tone telephone. While the risks and controls are similar for the various e-banking access channels, this booklet focuses specifically on Internet-based services due to the Internets widely accessible public network. Accordingly, this booklet begins with a discussion of the two primary types of Internet websites : informational and transactional. Citibank offers vast amount of electronic banking products and services which enables customers fast and secure access to banking through Citibanks portfolio of bank. CitiDirect Online Banking business bankings new direction and is defined as a powerful new way to bank that puts customers banking functions all in one place at your fingertips and within reach of your entire organization.   For small companies, it means accessing global capabilities from your desktop and for multinationals its about getting a handle on your world. CitiDirect is the cornerstone of Citibanks vision of the future of banking. CitiDirect lets you access your accounts-real-time -and an ever-expanding portfolio of industry-leading products and services through the Web, so you can be more efficient, more flexible and more in control of your banking. Customers can access their information on bank balances, initiate both local and foreign currency payments and would shortly be able to initiate trade transactions and customer service requests. Benefits: Banking that changes as you change Customer Banking Services Leading Edge Security Online Support Fast, Efficient and Easy to Use Easy Access, Total Control Citibank Paylink is Citibanks premier payment product, enabling an absolute outsourcing of the payment route to Citibank for efficiency, time and cost savings to our customers. Citibank Paylink needs data creation, approval at customers offices and diffusion via on-line modem to Citibank where payment is authenticated and securely practiced either as cheques or Electronic Funds Transfers to receiver at Citibank or other banks. Citibank Paylink can also be edged with accounting systems to be given payment data prior to transmission on-line to Citibank. SAP R/3, JD Edwards, SUN and most major accounting systems have been successfully interfaced with Citibank Paylink. Citibank Paylink also incorporates a perform at library, which can be used for regular payment instructions of dealers, and beneficiaries. Citibank Paylink suggests a fast, suitable, consistent and secure way to effect payments, including: Foreign Currency/ Money Market Deal initiation Mass Payments Processing for Dividends, etc Accounts Payable Process Management Regional Payments Services Electronic Payroll Processing Customs and Duty Payments Benefits of Citibank Paylink: Security and control. Facilitates straight through processing Enhanced reconciliation Convenient, Flexible and adaptable system Elimination of check order, printing and signing process Time and cost savings Citibanking Online deals with cash management which is an progressively more important factor in overall business performance. Information on your bank accounts must be exact, up-to-date and instantly reachable. Citibanking Online is Citibanks Windows based electronic banking display place providing integrated access to account information. This system allows you to see, in a matter of seconds, the very latest of information on accounts you hold worldwide via a computer terminal in your office. Citibanking Online s competence and power provide a clear competitive edge wherever whenever you do business. Benefits:   Historical Data Simple Access and User Friendly Software Comprehensive Data Provides Instant Information Real-time Online Information Citibanking is considered as a product that offers admission to all Citibank branches around the globe. You can easily and from your own office, you can get connected to Citibanks network in a few seconds. You can also view the very latest information on accounts held globally. You can also transmit or transfer instructions to any Citibank location or branch in the world. Citibanking performs in either a single workstation or multi-user surroundings providing features and attributes adapted to meet your specific needs. Benefits: Security. Rapid, cost effective communications. Reliable, accurate records. Enhanced productivity. Citibanking is well-matched to financial institutions and global corporations; It is also well suited to trade transactions and works well with cash management.

Equity and PFI Strategies in the NHS

Equity and PFI Strategies in the NHS A) Equity NHS hospitals acquire some finance from the private sector and many patients use private health insurance to gain access to treatment; a two tier health care system is emerging (Browne, 2002). From the time the NHS began there has been concern about inequalities in health care. The Black report (1980) looked further at this and the Department of health report â€Å"Saving lives† (1999) rates the importance of equity highly. Equity can conflict with efficiency (Wagstaff, 1991). Sassi (2001) explains that mechanisms of achieving equity are unclear especially when there is the conflict with efficiency. Sassi (2001a) found that for cervical cancer screening, renal transplantation, and neonatal screening for sickle cell disease there was no consistency between NHS policies and equitable principles. Social class has an influence on the incidence and the survivability of many malignancies (Brown, 1997) but despite this fact in the cervical screening program the women most at risk were the least likely to get screened (National Audit Office, 1998). The monetary incentives to achieve screening targets by general practitioners did not address this problem. There are also morally related benefits such as respect for the individual and respect for autonomy that need to be considered. Although â€Å"there should be equal access to health care within the NHS based on equal need† (Davey, 1993) the advent of prescription charges and the extent of the exclusions of dental treatment and of optician services from the NHS (New, 1996) and particularly the exclusion of the bulk of infertility treatment negates this principle. Whilst the prescription charges and optical and dental charges do not, in general, mean that the patient’s need is not met (since the inherent means testing excludes those who are likely to be able to pay themselves) the fertility treatment issue is quite different. Whilst allocation by index of social deprivation or by ethnicity may be a requirement this may conflict with allocation by clinical need. The important question is whether there is equal treatment for equal need. Since those who are poorer in financial terms have the greatest health care needs in addressing the question it becomes apparent that those individuals who are poorer should have an appropriate resource allocation for health care. The system of resource allocation is slightly â€Å"pro poor† (Propper, 2001). The lowest 25% of the population economically do get 25% of the funding (the financial groups were standardised for equality of health care need). Equity in resource allocation does not however mean equity in terms of health actually achieved. The question is whether there is effectiveness of this allocation. Inequalities in health persist across social boundaries (Acheson report, 1988). Propper (2001) analysed â€Å"equal treatment for equal need† accordin g to whether those of equal clinical need but of differing financial means actually had equal treatment. The issue to address is whether there is equal access to healthcare, so this goes a step forward from just equal funding. Interestingly Propper (2001) finds little effect by age. The higher health care expenditure with increased age was generally in the last few months of life regardless of age. There is not currently a fair distribution of health care provision across multi ethnic groups (Erens, 2001). Whether affirmative action policies would assist in a more equitable distribution awaits further evaluation (Sassi, 2004). The Department of Health’s â€Å"Tackling health inequalities† (2003) places much emphasis on targeting racial groups for enhanced care. Health care targeting of ethnic minority groups with greater health care needs has begun to show some evidence of improved outcome (Arblaster, 1996). Health authority funding has tended to be overly weighted according to age distribution (Judge, 1994). Judge (1994) calls for a â€Å"unified weighted capitation system†. Coordination is a problem. Budgetary allocation may be partly determined on the previous year’s spending. Mechanisms of altering care according to need have often not assessed how this might be achieved (Majeed, 1994). Those individuals with the greatest health care needs include young children, the elderly, people living in areas of social deprivation and people from ethnic minority groups (Majeed, 1994). However it is these groups of the greatest need who have general practitioners with the greatest primary care work load (Balarajan, 1992). People from ethnic minorities and those living in areas of social deprivation have the lowest uptakes of immunisation (Baker, 11991). There is a fundamental need still for the equal need – equal access equation and despite the difficulties of trying to achieve a balance (which may be viewed over pessimistically, Doyal, 1997) it remains a worthwhile objective. References Acheson Report. Independent inquiry into inequalities in health report. 1998 Department of Health London: The stationary office. Arblaster L Lambert M Entwistle V et al 1996 A systematic review of the effectiveness of health service interventions aimed at reducing inequalities in health. J Health Serv Res Policy 1: 93-103. Baker D Klein R 1991 Explaining outputs of primary health care: population and practice factors. BMJ303:225-9. Balarajan R Yuen P Machin D 1992 Deprivation and general practitioner workload. BMJ 304:529-34. The Black report 1980 Department of Health and Social Services. Inequalities in health: the Black report. London: DHSS Brown J Harding S Bethune A et al 1997 Incidence of Health of the Nation cancers by social class. Population Trends 90: 40-47 Browne A and Young M 2002 A sick NHS: the diagnosis. The observer Special Reports Sunday April 7, 2002 Davey B, Popay, J. Dilemmas in health care. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1993:27-42. Doyle L 1997 Rationing within the NHS should be explicit: the care for BMJ 314:1114-1118 Erens B Primatesta P Prior G 2001 Health survey for England 1999: the health of minority ethnic groups. London: Stationery Office. Judge K Mays N1994 Equity in the NHS Allocating resources for health and social care in England BMJ 308:1363-6 Majeed FA N Chaturvedi N R Reading R 1994 Equity in the NHS Monitoring and promoting equity in primary and secondary care BMJ 308:1426-29 National Audit Office 1998 The performance of the NHS cervical screening programme in England. London: Stationery Office. New B 1996 The rationing agenda in the NHS BMJ 312:1593-1601 Propper C 2001 Expenditure on Health Care in the UK: A review of the issues. CMPO Working Paper Series No. 01/030 Available on http://www.bris.ac.uk/cmpo/workingpapers/wp30.pdf Accessed 1 May 2006. Sassi F Archard L Le Grand J 2001aEquity and the economic evaluation of health care. Health Technol Assess 5(3). Sassi F Carrier J Weinberg J 2004 Affirmative action: the lessons for health care BMJ328:1213-1214 Saving lives: our healthier nation 1999 Department of Health. London: Stationery Office Tackling health inequalities. A programme for action. 2003 Department of Health. London: DoH, 2003. Wagstaff A 1991 QALYs and the equity-efficiency trade-off. J Health Econ 10: 21-41 B) Private Finance Initiative (PFI) PFI is a partnership between the NHS and a private company. It is increasingly used to purchase a new hospital building. Instead of a capital payment being made revenue payments are made over a number of years. Advantages of PFI Many hospital buildings are extremely old and are clearly no longer suitable for their purpose. The buildings hamper the introduction of new technologies and new ways of working. Costs of new buildings are prohibitively high. The PFI arrangement enables a new building to go ahead where otherwise the opportunity to rebuild would not have arisen at all. PFI certainly overcomes the difficulties that would ensue from a rise in taxes to achieve new hospital builds which would be very unpopular with the public and would be difficult to provide equitably. The PFI does achieve a building with the minimal of public spending at least in the short term. The view of Government is that PFI allows money to be spent on equipment rather than buildings (Ferriman, 1999). There is an argument that PFI is only a procurement issue and other procurement processes are not without problems (McGinty, 2000). The blame laid on PFI may have occurred with alternative means of funding the building of a new hospital. Under the PFI scheme there is a clear incentive, once agreement has been reached, to commence and complete the building work. The private company has a financial interest to see completion to a satisfactory standard. The advantage here for the healthcare provider is that the scheme will complete quickly. There is an ongoing interest in the building by the building and finance companies and this may work to the benefit of the health care provider. Disadvantages of PFI The cost may increase once the building work has begun and this may lead to cost containment negotiations resulting in a decreased number of beds or result in other cutting of health care services. Smith (1999) finds where there is PFI there is an increase in the number of private beds to help to finance the project. This may arise as a choice to increase the revenue from private work as opposed to cutting the number of beds in the new build. The PFI scheme does not really take into consideration the fact that an increasing amount of health care previously provided in hospitals is now done in the community and investment is now in â€Å"services not beds† (McCloskey, 2000). A view, though not universal, (Smith, 1999) is that with PFI the planning is done in the private sector and is therefore not so readily visible. There is increasing evidence that PFI is costing more than the costs of using public money (Pollock, 1997). â€Å"Private capital is always more expensive than public capital† (Smith, 1999). The cost through PFI of construction plus financing costs is 18-60% higher than the building costs (Gaffney, 1999). This is a worrying aspect. It is likely the deficit will be met by cutting costs in the service (Gaffney, 1999). Gaffney (1999) argues comparisons prior to approval of PFI schemes use comparisons with public sector building that involve â€Å"discounting† of costs and adjustments to reflect â€Å"risk transfer† in its appraisal methodology which biases towards approval of PFI. The discounted cash flow analysis makes the PFI look better value than it actually is. Such discounting is appropriate for the private sector where it is useful to maximise profits. Its value in health care where there is not the aim to profit is therefore suspect. The level of concern about PFI has reached the level where the British Medical Association opposes the scheme and wishes the public to be informed of the anticipated long term repercussions and that there be an audit of present such schemes (Beecham, 2002). There is some evidence that PFI is now becoming less popular with private companies (O’Dowd, 2005). There is a concern that some feel that purely because the private sector is involved the procedure must be wrong. It is not the partnership with the private sector that is wrong but the lack of a credible system of achieving an appropriate balance between the financial rewards to the investor and the value for money of the health care provider. If the scales tip the way many fear they will there will be a very serious financial drain on the health service. The Government has now become concerned about the cost implications of PFI and is presently delaying further PFI plans whilst investigating the issue further (O’Dowd, 2006). References Beecham L 2002 PFI schemes should be vigorously opposed BMJ 325:66 Ferriman A 1999 Dobson defends use of the PFI for hospital building BMJ 319:275 Gaffney D, Pollock AM, Price D et al 1999PFI in the NHSis there an economic case? BMJ 319:116-9 McCloskey B Deakin M 2000 Series did not address real planning issues BMJ 320:250 McGinty F 2000 Partnership between private and NHS is not necessarily wrong BMJ 320:250 O’Dowd A 2005 Private sector is losing interest in PFI projects BMJ331:1042 O’Dowd A 2006 Three hospital PFI schemes are delayed while government looks at their cost BMJ332:196 Pollock AM Dunnigan M Gaffney D et al 1997 on behalf of the NHS Consultants Association, Radical Statistics Health Group, and the NHS Support Federation. What happens when the private sector plans hospital services for the NHS: three case studies under the private finance initiative. BMJ 1997; 314: 1266-1271 Smith R 1999 PFI: perfidious financial idiocy BMJ ;319:2-3 C) Managing Scarce Resources Clear mismatch been healthcare resources and needs leads to rationing but the actual mechanism of this is unclear. There are important differences between rationing and priority setting/resource allocation (New, 1996). The former denies a service to individuals whereas the latter concerns value judgments in providing services to groups. Rationing only concerns those treatments which are of proven benefit and is not concerned with evaluation of treatment effectiveness (Nice, 1996). There is healthcare rationing within the NHS today and this is not clear or widely acknowledged and therefore is implicit (Coast, 1997). As a result where treatment is denied to individuals the public do not realize this is due to rationing but on the occasions it finds out there is generally public dissatisfaction, sometimes culminating in litigation as with child B (Price, 1996). Arguments against rationing being explicit include the difficultly of creating such a scheme since there are no ethical rules by which to do it Klein, 1993). â€Å"There is no such thing as a correct set of priorities, or even a correct way of setting priorities (House of Commons Health Committee, 1995). Even if it could be done some consider it is unlikely to work not least because those disadvantaged may bring about dispute and disruption leading to a return to an implicit system (Mechanic, 1995). Coast (1997) sees the disutility (dissatisfaction with the poorer clinical outcome where treatment is denied) of explicit rationing as a distinct problem. With explicit rationing the public would be colluding with decision making and would feel responsibility and disutility where treatment is denied. Coast (1997) argues that in an implicit system the doctors will tend to medicalise the decisions not to treat. When there has been explicit rationing there is no evidence of improved decisio n making but reluctance to determine which treatments should be denied (Cohen, 1994; Donaldson, 1994). Arguments in favour of explicit (openly acknowledged) rationing, a view favoured by healthcare policy makers, include; openness and honesty, possibly leading to a more equitable, efficient service, in which the public can influence the rationing process democratically. Doyal (1979) favours explicit rationing and promotes â€Å"evaluat[ion of] the justice or the efficiency of the rationing process,† and considers the inability to face this is in contrast with the moral foundation of the NHS. Doyal (1979) favours rationing according to need (degree of disability) not by disease popularity, or social worth. Incorporation of uniform clinical guidelines might facilitate the process. Points to consider in a rationing process include (New, 1996); Which services are to be rationed What are the objectives of the rationing process What are the ethically acceptable criteria for rationing Who should do the rationing The Rationing Agenda Group’s function is to increase debate on rationing. This body believes rationing and public involvement in the process are essential (New, 1996). There are various methods of rationing, one includes a cost effective analysis, another involves capacity to benefit (New, 1996). Different approaches are used for different needs for instance infertility treatment may be denied entirely. In any explicit rationing process objectives need clarification and here the objectives might include (New,1996) maximising quality adjusted life years or minimising health inequalities by group or area of residence, The decision making process at national level will include formulae for allocation by geographical area and also work in response to national agendas such as Health of the Nation. At local level there will be health care commissioning incorporating decisions about which health care services to purchase for a community. The processes will be subject to pressure from groups such as; pressure groups, complaint mechanisms and statutory bodies such as community health councils and review by the national Audit Office (New, 1996). Even when a rationing criteria is agreed upon the situation remains complex. Rationing by age may be morally wrong and some would advocate its illegality (Rivin, 1999). Age is a major factor in the rationing of renal transplantation (Lewis, 1989) despite the fact that age does not have a good relationship with prognosis (Wolfe, 1999). Sassi (2001) explains the lack of equity principles in the way such decisions are made in the NHS. O’Boyle (2001) auditing rationing secondary care for excision of skin lesions and found poor patient and general practitioner satisfaction with the process and a high rate of re-referrals. The debate as to the degree of openness of the rationing process continues. The problems of rationing are inherent in the process and openness of the process exposes yet more difficult decision making. References Coast J 1997 Rationing within the NHS should be explicit; the case against BMJ 314:1118-1122 Cohen D 1994 Marginal analysis in practice: an alternative to needs assessment for contracting health care. BMJ 309:781-4. Donaldson C 1994 Commentary: possible road to efficiency in the health service. BMJ 309:784-5. Doyal L 1997 Rationing within the NHS should be explicit: the case for BMJ 1114-1118 House of Commons Health Committee 1995 Priority setting in the NHS: purchasing. London: HMSO 57. Klein R 1993 Dimensions of rationing: who should do what? BMJ 307:309-11. Lewis PA Charny M 1989 Which of two individuals do you treat when only their ages are different and you cant treat both? J Med Ethics 1989; 15: 29-32. Mechanic D 1995 Dilemmas in rationing health care services: the case for implicit rationing. BMJ 310:1655-9. New B 1996 The rationing agenda in the NHS BMJ 312:1593-1601 OBoyle Cole R P C 2001 Rationing in the NHS : An audit of outcome and acceptance of restriction criteria for minor operations BMJ323:428-429 Price D 1996 Lessons for health care rationing from the case of child B BMJ 312:167-9. Rivlin M 1999 Should age based rationing of health care be illegal? BMJ319:1379 Sassi F Le Grand J Archard L 2001 Equity versus efficiency: a dilemma for the NHS BMJ323:762-763 Wolfe R Ashby V Milford E et al 1999 Comparison of mortality in all patients on dialysis, patients on dialysis awaiting transplantation, and recipients of a first cadaveric transplant. N Engl J Med 341: 1725-1730

The Two-Dimensional Character of Virginia Woolfs To The Lighthouse :: To The Lighthouse Essays

To the Lighthouse  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Two-Dimensional Character   In the novel, To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf illustrates the character of Mr. Ramsay, a husband and father of eight children.   As a husband, he degrades and mentally abuses his wife, Mrs. Ramsay, and as a father, he disparages and psychologically injures his children.   Yet, Mr. Ramsay has another side -- a second dimension.   He carries the traits of a very compassionate and loving husband and a securing and nurturing father. Although Woolf depicts Mr. Ramsay as crude, brusque, and insensitive, he, nonetheless, desires happiness and welfare for his family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even though Mr. Ramsay frequently scolds and denounces Mrs. Ramsay, he still seeks happiness and comfort for his wife.   For example, after Mrs. Ramsay lies to James about the next day's weather, "He [Mr. Ramsay] stamped his foot on the stone step. 'Damn you,' he said." (31) Mr. Ramsay devastates his wife's emotions.   Because of a little lie, the temperamental Mr. Ramsay hurts, if not kills, Mrs. Ramsay's emotions.   Still, right after the incident, Mr. Ramsay self-reflects and   "[he was] ashamed of that petulance [that he brought to his wife]." (32) Mr. Ramsay understands and regrets the sorrow he brought on Mrs. Ramsay.   He sympathizes with her and is "ashamed" for what he had done.   Mr. Ramsay wants to appease his wife and make her happy as a result of the torment that he inflicted on her.   Next, Woolf again illustrates Mr. Ramsay's insensitive dimension when Mr. Ramsay makes Mrs. Ramsay "bend her head as if to let the pelt of jagged hail, the drench of dirty water, bespatter her unrebuked." (32) Mr. Ramsay is heartless to his wife's feelings; it is as if he enjoys "drenching" Mrs. Ramsay and enjoys seeing her in mental anguish.   However, Woolf later contrasts the callous Mr. Ramsay with a more sensitive and caring Mr. Ramsay:   So stiffened and composed the lines of her face in a habit of sternness that when her husband passed†¦ he could not help noting, the sternness at the heart of her beauty.   It saddened him, and her remoteness pained him. (64)      Therefore, here Mr. Ramsay is portrayed as a sympathetic and caring husband that is "pained" by the expression of sorrow on his wife's face.   Mr. Ramsay is sensitive to his wife's feelings and desires her well-being.

Eating Disorders, Body Image and Cultural Contexts Essay -- Eating Dis

Eating Disorders, Body Image and Cultural Contexts Although a great deal of early research on body image and eating disorders focused on upper/middle class Caucasians living in America or under the influence of Western ideals, many researchers are realizing that eating disorders are not isolated to this particular group. They are also realizing the differences in body image between occur in different races and genders (Pate, Pumariega, Hester 1992). Recently, several studies have shown that eating disorders transcend these specific guidelines, and increasingly, researchers are looking at male/female differences, cross-cultural variation and variation within cultures as well. It is impossible to broach the concept of body image without including the general sentiment of the population being studied as it changes from society to society. Americans, Blacks and Asians have been the focus of a significant amount of research on the cultural attributions of eating disorders and differences in body image between cultures. When a researcher considers body image and eating problems in African-American women, they must also take into account the socio-cultural factors and factors of oppression, such as racism and sexism (Davis, Clance, Gailis 1999). Without specific etiologies for individual eating problems and body dissatisfaction, these issues become very important to individual cases and treatments. Psychologists must consider religions, coping methods, family life, and socio-economic status when assessing a patient. These all vary within cultures and between cultures making this a difficult job and complex subject to tackle. Fortunately, a great deal of research has been done to assess the body images of Black women. One extensive... ...pean Eating Disorder Review,4, 73-83. Molloy, B., Herzberger, S. (1998) Body image and self-esteem: A comparison of african american and caucasian women. Sex-Roles, 38, 631-643. Mumford, D., Whitehouse, A., Platts, M., (1991) Sociocultural correlates of eating disorders among asian school girls in bradford. British Journal of Pyschiatry, 158, 222-228. Ofuso, H., Lafreniere, K., Senn, C., (1998) Body image And perception among young women of african descent: A normative context? Feminism and Psychology, 8, 303-323. Pate, J., Pumariega, A., (1992) Cross-cultural patterns in eating disorders: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,31, 802-809. Williamson, L. (1998) Eating disorders and the cultural forces behind the drive for thinness: Are african american women really protected? Social Work in Health Care,28, 61-73. Eating Disorders, Body Image and Cultural Contexts Essay -- Eating Dis Eating Disorders, Body Image and Cultural Contexts Although a great deal of early research on body image and eating disorders focused on upper/middle class Caucasians living in America or under the influence of Western ideals, many researchers are realizing that eating disorders are not isolated to this particular group. They are also realizing the differences in body image between occur in different races and genders (Pate, Pumariega, Hester 1992). Recently, several studies have shown that eating disorders transcend these specific guidelines, and increasingly, researchers are looking at male/female differences, cross-cultural variation and variation within cultures as well. It is impossible to broach the concept of body image without including the general sentiment of the population being studied as it changes from society to society. Americans, Blacks and Asians have been the focus of a significant amount of research on the cultural attributions of eating disorders and differences in body image between cultures. When a researcher considers body image and eating problems in African-American women, they must also take into account the socio-cultural factors and factors of oppression, such as racism and sexism (Davis, Clance, Gailis 1999). Without specific etiologies for individual eating problems and body dissatisfaction, these issues become very important to individual cases and treatments. Psychologists must consider religions, coping methods, family life, and socio-economic status when assessing a patient. These all vary within cultures and between cultures making this a difficult job and complex subject to tackle. Fortunately, a great deal of research has been done to assess the body images of Black women. One extensive... ...pean Eating Disorder Review,4, 73-83. Molloy, B., Herzberger, S. (1998) Body image and self-esteem: A comparison of african american and caucasian women. Sex-Roles, 38, 631-643. Mumford, D., Whitehouse, A., Platts, M., (1991) Sociocultural correlates of eating disorders among asian school girls in bradford. British Journal of Pyschiatry, 158, 222-228. Ofuso, H., Lafreniere, K., Senn, C., (1998) Body image And perception among young women of african descent: A normative context? Feminism and Psychology, 8, 303-323. Pate, J., Pumariega, A., (1992) Cross-cultural patterns in eating disorders: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,31, 802-809. Williamson, L. (1998) Eating disorders and the cultural forces behind the drive for thinness: Are african american women really protected? Social Work in Health Care,28, 61-73.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1. Introduction In the field of management, motivating employees is a very important issue that managers have to consider. Research has shown in many cases that companies with motivated and satisfied employees are more efficient and productive. Considering the goal of the company, this can lead to higher profits and moreover to a good internal corporate culture. How can managers accomplish this task? Is it effective using Maslow’s theory to motivate employees? This paper will analyze why managers should not follow Maslow’s theory of needs in order to motivate employees.To prove this statement, the expose will focus on the model of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, after giving a brief description of motivation. In addition the paper will examine how, according to Maslow, managers can satisfy these needs in a company. Furthermore the weaknesses are pointed out, also with the help of research studies. At the end, Alderfer’s ERG Theory is compared to Maslowâ€℠¢s theory , as he reshaped the hierarchy of needs, which will provide a better understanding of Maslow’s theory and especially of the weaknesses.Although Maslow’s theory is often used to illustrate the concept of motivation, it is not a reliable theory when utilizing it in practice. 2. Motivation In the context of Psychology motivation can be described as ‘ processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal ‘(Robbins 2007: 186). Many managers who do not see motivation in their employees tend to characterize them as lazy. However motivation is not a personal trait, and therefore can always be taught.This concludes that one should not deal with the question whether someone is motivated, instead one should find out what is causing the motivation or lack of motivation (Robbins 2007: 186) In the 1950’s some of the first need theories that explain how work-related behavior can be driven by satisfying needs, were formulated (Furnham 1992: 128). 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs The need hierarchy which is also associated with a pyramid , is divided into five levels which represent five basic needs. Maslow assumed that an individual had five needs which are activated in a hierarchical order.It was based on the prepotency of needs, meaning that a need emerged as a motivator as soon as a lower-need was satisfied (Heylighen 1992: 40) 3. 1 Model * Physiological Needs – food, water , air , shelter * Safety Needs – security, stability, protection * Love and Belongingness Needs– relationships, friends, family, socializing * Self-esteem Needs – achievement, reputation, independence, prestige * Self-actualization Needs – becoming everything one is capable of becoming (Maslow 1970 : 39-46) Counter argument: Maslow’s theory claims that all needs are not equal.In general, one might approve this statement as in many cases lower order needs take priority over higher order needs. However, in certain situations e. g escaping danger, hunger might be unimportant (Kalat 2008: 377). Therefore the hierarchical model does not provide an accurate picture of reality and does not consider these exceptions. 3. 2 Application on Management As Maslow claims, that once a need is satisfied, it does not serve as a motivator anymore, managers for example cannot only pay their employees more money, as this need will eventually be satisfied and no longer be a motivator.Instead they have to find other ways to satisfy the different needs (Robbins: 187) In the context of an organization (Sadri 2011 : 45-48) : * Physiological Needs – salaries, wages, bonuses * Safety Needs – health insurances, retirement plans * Love and Belongingness Needs – teamwork, company festivals, clubs * Self-esteem Needs –recognition, praise, competitions, promotions * Self-actualization Needs- tution reimbursement programs Counter a rgument: Maslow argues that a ‘satisfied need no longer motivates’. (Robbins 2007: 187).However, due to the fact that ‘ motivation is driven by the situation’ (Robbins 2007: 186) , for an employee who has reached self-esteem, job security can become a motivator again, in times of a financial crisis. 3. 3 Weaknesses * Motivation does not change only within an individual due to different situations, but also among all individuals (Robbins 2007: 186). Therefore managers have to know how to motivate each employee in an effective way according to Maslow. This is a big challenge, and unlikely to occur when implementing in reality. Another criticism of the theory itself is the aspect of culture. ‘ In countries like Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty avoidance characteristics are strong, security needs would be on top of the need hierarchy’ (Robbins 2007: 212). This shows that the theory can only be applied to the American culture, where self -actualization is the goal of most individuals. * From 1966 to 1973, there have been many studies, which tested Maslow’s theory, however ‘these results were not supportive of Maslow’s need structure (Wahba,Bridwell 1976)’ (Berl, Williamson & Powell 1984: 34). 4. ERG TheoryClayton Alderfer, an american psychologist reworked Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and developed a theory called ERG Theory (Robbins 2007: 188) 4. 1 Comparison to Maslow’s Theory In comparison to Maslow, Alderfer distinguishes between three categories (Weihrich 2010: 331). * Existence Needs * Relatedness Needs * Growth Needs Alderfer criticised the hierarchic order, giving two reasons. * Firstly ,through the hierarchic order only one need can be satisfied at a time. Alderfer referred to this point in his theory, and affirmed that ‘ more than one need may be activated at a time’ (Kreitner 2007 : 238).For example, an employee might go to work in order to afford a pla ce to live, but also because he or she is motivated due to the good relationships with coworkers or managers (Weihrich 2010: 331-332). * On top of that Maslow justified his hierarchic order with the belief that ‘people tend to satisfy their needs systematically’ (Cole 2004: 36). However Alderfer argued that a ‘systematic movement up the hierarchy does not seem to be a consistent form of behavior for many people’ (Cole 2004: 36). 5. ConclusionThe examination of Maslow’s theory and the comparison to Alderfer’s theory lead to the conclusion that on one side, it is true that individuals have different needs and that they relate to work behavior, but unfortunately the hierarchic structure does not appropriately reflect reality. On top of that, it is impossible for managers to find out what need is dominating each employee, as it can change due to situations. Furthermore ,due to the aspect of culture you cannot place a specific need at the top.As th e weaknesses supported by the research, prove that the model does not work out in practice, it can be concluded that it is not advisable for managers to follow Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in order to motivate employees. Bibliography Berl,R. L, Williamson, N. C. , Powell,T. (1984) Industrial Salesforce Motivation: A Critique and Test of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 4(1), 33-39. Retrieved 26/04/2012 from EBSCO Cole, G. A. (2004) Management Theory and Practice. (6th edition) London : Geraldine Lyons. Retrieved 20/04/2012 from http://books. oogle. de/books? id=HQhvAnb4TgMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=management+theory+and+practice+cole&hl=de&sa=X&ei=IQ6XT7fCGIrNtAbqhommDg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=management%20theory%20and%20practice%20cole&f=false Furnham, A. (1992) ,Personality At Work: The Role of Individual Differences In The Workplace. London : Routledge. Retrieved 24/04/2012 from http://books. google. de/books? id=v_hPuMqN_ d0C&pg=PA128&dq=need+theories&hl=de&sa=X&ei=i6WT42SEIfVsgbM8aicDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=need%20theories&f=false Heylighen, F. 1992). A Cognitive Systematic Reconstruction of Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization. Behavioral Science. 37, 39-57 Retrieved 24/04/2012 from http://pespmc1. vub. ac. be/Papers/Maslow. pdf Kalat,J. (2008) Introduction to Psychology. (9th edition) Wadsworth: Cengage Learning Kreitner,R. , Kinicki A. (2007) Organizational Behaviour (7th edition ). New York : McGraw-Hill Maslow, A. H (1970) Motivation and Personality. (2nd edition). New York: Harper ; Row Publishers Sadri, G. , Bowen, R. C. (2011) Meeting employee requirements : Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is still a reliable guide.Industrial engineer. 43 (10 ) ,44-48. Robbins, S. P, Judge,T. A. (2007) Organizational Behavior (12th edition) New Jersey: Pearson Education Weihrich,H. , Cannice,M. v. , Koontz, H. (2010) Management : A Global and Entrepreneurial Perspective. New Dheli : Tata McGraw Hil l Education. Retrieved 22/04/2012 from http://books. google. de/books? id=6vRX9w7ukhcC;pg=PA331;dq=alderfer+erg+theory;hl=de;sa=X;ei=Hj-UT_a0EMvdsgbOstyiBA;ved=0CFwQ6AEwCA#v=onepage;q=alderfer%20erg%20theory;f=false Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 1. Introduction In the field of management, motivating employees is a very important issue that managers have to consider. Research has shown in many cases that companies with motivated and satisfied employees are more efficient and productive. Considering the goal of the company, this can lead to higher profits and moreover to a good internal corporate culture. How can managers accomplish this task? Is it effective using Maslow’s theory to motivate employees? This paper will analyze why managers should not follow Maslow’s theory of needs in order to motivate employees.To prove this statement, the expose will focus on the model of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, after giving a brief description of motivation. In addition the paper will examine how, according to Maslow, managers can satisfy these needs in a company. Furthermore the weaknesses are pointed out, also with the help of research studies. At the end, Alderfer’s ERG Theory is compared to Maslowâ€℠¢s theory , as he reshaped the hierarchy of needs, which will provide a better understanding of Maslow’s theory and especially of the weaknesses.Although Maslow’s theory is often used to illustrate the concept of motivation, it is not a reliable theory when utilizing it in practice. 2. Motivation In the context of Psychology motivation can be described as ‘ processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal ‘(Robbins 2007: 186). Many managers who do not see motivation in their employees tend to characterize them as lazy. However motivation is not a personal trait, and therefore can always be taught.This concludes that one should not deal with the question whether someone is motivated, instead one should find out what is causing the motivation or lack of motivation (Robbins 2007: 186) In the 1950’s some of the first need theories that explain how work-related behavior can be driven by satisfying needs, were formulated (Furnham 1992: 128). 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs The need hierarchy which is also associated with a pyramid , is divided into five levels which represent five basic needs. Maslow assumed that an individual had five needs which are activated in a hierarchical order.It was based on the prepotency of needs, meaning that a need emerged as a motivator as soon as a lower-need was satisfied (Heylighen 1992: 40) 3. 1 Model * Physiological Needs – food, water , air , shelter * Safety Needs – security, stability, protection * Love and Belongingness Needs– relationships, friends, family, socializing * Self-esteem Needs – achievement, reputation, independence, prestige * Self-actualization Needs – becoming everything one is capable of becoming (Maslow 1970 : 39-46) Counter argument: Maslow’s theory claims that all needs are not equal.In general, one might approve this statement as in many cases lower order needs take priority over higher order needs. However, in certain situations e. g escaping danger, hunger might be unimportant (Kalat 2008: 377). Therefore the hierarchical model does not provide an accurate picture of reality and does not consider these exceptions. 3. 2 Application on Management As Maslow claims, that once a need is satisfied, it does not serve as a motivator anymore, managers for example cannot only pay their employees more money, as this need will eventually be satisfied and no longer be a motivator.Instead they have to find other ways to satisfy the different needs (Robbins: 187) In the context of an organization (Sadri 2011 : 45-48) : * Physiological Needs – salaries, wages, bonuses * Safety Needs – health insurances, retirement plans * Love and Belongingness Needs – teamwork, company festivals, clubs * Self-esteem Needs –recognition, praise, competitions, promotions * Self-actualization Needs- tution reimbursement programs Counter a rgument: Maslow argues that a ‘satisfied need no longer motivates’. (Robbins 2007: 187).However, due to the fact that ‘ motivation is driven by the situation’ (Robbins 2007: 186) , for an employee who has reached self-esteem, job security can become a motivator again, in times of a financial crisis. 3. 3 Weaknesses * Motivation does not change only within an individual due to different situations, but also among all individuals (Robbins 2007: 186). Therefore managers have to know how to motivate each employee in an effective way according to Maslow. This is a big challenge, and unlikely to occur when implementing in reality. Another criticism of the theory itself is the aspect of culture. ‘ In countries like Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty avoidance characteristics are strong, security needs would be on top of the need hierarchy’ (Robbins 2007: 212). This shows that the theory can only be applied to the American culture, where self -actualization is the goal of most individuals. * From 1966 to 1973, there have been many studies, which tested Maslow’s theory, however ‘these results were not supportive of Maslow’s need structure (Wahba,Bridwell 1976)’ (Berl, Williamson & Powell 1984: 34). 4. ERG TheoryClayton Alderfer, an american psychologist reworked Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and developed a theory called ERG Theory (Robbins 2007: 188) 4. 1 Comparison to Maslow’s Theory In comparison to Maslow, Alderfer distinguishes between three categories (Weihrich 2010: 331). * Existence Needs * Relatedness Needs * Growth Needs Alderfer criticised the hierarchic order, giving two reasons. * Firstly ,through the hierarchic order only one need can be satisfied at a time. Alderfer referred to this point in his theory, and affirmed that ‘ more than one need may be activated at a time’ (Kreitner 2007 : 238).For example, an employee might go to work in order to afford a pla ce to live, but also because he or she is motivated due to the good relationships with coworkers or managers (Weihrich 2010: 331-332). * On top of that Maslow justified his hierarchic order with the belief that ‘people tend to satisfy their needs systematically’ (Cole 2004: 36). However Alderfer argued that a ‘systematic movement up the hierarchy does not seem to be a consistent form of behavior for many people’ (Cole 2004: 36). 5. ConclusionThe examination of Maslow’s theory and the comparison to Alderfer’s theory lead to the conclusion that on one side, it is true that individuals have different needs and that they relate to work behavior, but unfortunately the hierarchic structure does not appropriately reflect reality. On top of that, it is impossible for managers to find out what need is dominating each employee, as it can change due to situations. Furthermore ,due to the aspect of culture you cannot place a specific need at the top.As th e weaknesses supported by the research, prove that the model does not work out in practice, it can be concluded that it is not advisable for managers to follow Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in order to motivate employees. Bibliography Berl,R. L, Williamson, N. C. , Powell,T. (1984) Industrial Salesforce Motivation: A Critique and Test of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 4(1), 33-39. Retrieved 26/04/2012 from EBSCO Cole, G. A. (2004) Management Theory and Practice. (6th edition) London : Geraldine Lyons. Retrieved 20/04/2012 from http://books. oogle. de/books? id=HQhvAnb4TgMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=management+theory+and+practice+cole&hl=de&sa=X&ei=IQ6XT7fCGIrNtAbqhommDg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=management%20theory%20and%20practice%20cole&f=false Furnham, A. (1992) ,Personality At Work: The Role of Individual Differences In The Workplace. London : Routledge. Retrieved 24/04/2012 from http://books. google. de/books? id=v_hPuMqN_ d0C&pg=PA128&dq=need+theories&hl=de&sa=X&ei=i6WT42SEIfVsgbM8aicDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=need%20theories&f=false Heylighen, F. 1992). A Cognitive Systematic Reconstruction of Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization. Behavioral Science. 37, 39-57 Retrieved 24/04/2012 from http://pespmc1. vub. ac. be/Papers/Maslow. pdf Kalat,J. (2008) Introduction to Psychology. (9th edition) Wadsworth: Cengage Learning Kreitner,R. , Kinicki A. (2007) Organizational Behaviour (7th edition ). New York : McGraw-Hill Maslow, A. H (1970) Motivation and Personality. (2nd edition). New York: Harper ; Row Publishers Sadri, G. , Bowen, R. C. (2011) Meeting employee requirements : Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is still a reliable guide.Industrial engineer. 43 (10 ) ,44-48. Robbins, S. P, Judge,T. A. (2007) Organizational Behavior (12th edition) New Jersey: Pearson Education Weihrich,H. , Cannice,M. v. , Koontz, H. (2010) Management : A Global and Entrepreneurial Perspective. New Dheli : Tata McGraw Hil l Education. Retrieved 22/04/2012 from http://books. google. de/books? id=6vRX9w7ukhcC;pg=PA331;dq=alderfer+erg+theory;hl=de;sa=X;ei=Hj-UT_a0EMvdsgbOstyiBA;ved=0CFwQ6AEwCA#v=onepage;q=alderfer%20erg%20theory;f=false

The Saga Surrounding Assault Rifles

Gun control has been a touchy issue in the United States since a long while back. There has been much debate over whether guns should be banned in the country, the ownership of which is actually grounded in the constitution. In this regard, lobbyists of both sides have been pushing hard for a long time. A particular issue that now seems to have arisen from the middle relates to banning assault rifles. By the second amendment, every citizen of the United States has the right to bear fire arms for his or her own protection as well as the possible need for a militia in times of war (Kopel 1999).This is a remnant of the country’s history which had to endure a revolutionary war against Great Britain, a massive civil war as well as the ever present issue of slavery which always seemed to require households to carry guns. Since then gun control has become a touchy issue. In this regard, a ban was brought into place on assault weapons in 1994 which saw the end of a ten year reign in 2 004 when the Republican president George Bush refused to extend it (Carter 2009). Now most people argue that it is military style assault rifles that should be banned and not handguns or those used for hunting and sport.Assault rifles such as AK-47s can be used to shoot multiple rounds of bullets at a rapid pace. The argument that is being made is that Americans have the right to bear firearms but the use of assault rifles is wholly unnecessary. With the use of standard guns, people can fulfill their desire to possess firearms for sport or for their personal protection but the availability of assault rifles creates a whole new pantheon of problems (Carter 2009). Rapid firing weapons allow criminals to shoot down civilians as has been illustrated in the case of Pittsburgh.They are used in school shootings, by gangs and drug mafias and can pierce through the protective clothing worn by police officers (Kazmer 2009). However, the solution has never been so simple as to ban the weapons outright. The National Rifle Association has been a strong opponent of this and is buoyed by strong support from some sectors of the public. The delicacy of the situation can be adequately represented by President Obama’s back step from his vociferous promises to continue with the gun ban during his campaign.Now in a recent trip to Mexico, he has pushed for the need to carry on the existing legislation and controls and make them work better (Powell 2009). This has been pleasing to many gun lobbyists as well but it speaks of the times we live in. The last president to bring about the ban lost office soon enough at the hands of dissident voters which is a testament to the thorny nature of the issue. Indeed gun lobbyists make their own points in favor of assault rifles as well. It is argued that there are always exceptions to the rule that are not being considered.There is a need for assault rifles by the public in some cases. Boat owners in the Gulf coast region have to frequen tly face harassment from drug smugglers who can easily dispose of innocent civilians with their rapid firing semi automatic guns. In this case, self defense is not possible without assault rifles. A store owner being faced with a hold up by a gang may need the rapid firing power of an assault rifle to fight off the multiple enemies who threaten him without which he may end up losing his money as well as his life.Rural farmers in many cases have to contend with bear attacks. These creatures are not easy to fend off with traditional rifles and handguns and assault rifles may be necessary for a farmer to defend his family in the rural wilderness (Kopel 1999). It is further argued that the everyday criminal makes use of hand guns mostly and does not indulge in the purchase of assault rifles which therefore do not threaten public security. Both sides continue to make strong points in favor of their cause.However what has to be distinguished now is that whether it is more important to pro tect a right that has been ingrained into the constitution of the country and to consider the needs of particular citizens or to lessen the number of deadly guns available in the streets that result in deaths of innocent people. In this regard, one has to consider the facts. While it is known that assault rifles may be necessary in some cases, they also prove to be a severe detriment to American society as well.In 2006, it was estimated that more than thirty thousand people died in the year due to firearms and therefore accounted for nearly twenty percent of all injury related deaths. Similarly in 2005, a teenager was killed with a firearm nearly every nine hours (Carter 2009). These deaths were caused primarily by assault rifles. It is necessary that the fundamental rights of the American people be defended. However, the issue is not just about rights but about something much deeper. It relates to the security and the good living of the American public.If keeping these assault rifl es open to the public does not give us a better society, what good is there to protect this right? Certainly freedoms should not be curtailed but should be defended to every last inch but if it compromises the very security of our children and our future, then it is a freedom worth relinquishing. The ideal solution would be banning assault rifles all together. However, if this can not be met, it requires at least that better controls and back ground checks be brought into place with regards to gun purchases.This would not only help to control the damage to some extent and protect the rights under the second amendment but may also help to lower the trafficking of these assault weapons to the drug cartels in Mexico which are armed through the United States. A better society is indeed worth fighting for and if compromises have to be made for a better future, it is perhaps prudent to make them now rather than let the bearers of our future suffer. Biblio